References

Arnon SS, Schechter R, Inglesby TV, et al. Botulinum Toxin as a Biological weapon. JAMA 2001;285:1059-1070.

Centre for Infectious disease research and policy (CIDRAP) University of Minnesota. Botulism: Current, comprehensive information on pathogenesis, microbiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis. (Last updated February 5, 2009). http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/content/bt/botulism/botulismfactsheet.html

Donaghy M. Neurologists and the threat of bioterrorism. j Neuro Sci 2006; 249: 55-62.

Food-borne botulism

Anon. Management of outbreaks of foodborne illness. Department of Health, 1994.

Badhey H, Cleri DJ, D'Amato RF, et al. Two Fatal Cases of Type E Adult Food-Borne Botulism with Early Symptoms and Terminal Neurological Signs. J Clin Microbiol. 1985;23:616-618.

Ball AP, Hopkinson RB, Farrell ID. Human Botulism caused by Clostridium Botulinum Type E: The Birmingham Outbreak. Quarterly J Med, New series XLVIII 1979; 191:473-491.

Brett MM. Botulism in the United Kingdom. Eurosurveillance 1999;4: 9-10.

Critchley EMR, Hayes PJ, Isaacs PET. Outbreak of Botulism in North West England and Wales. Lancet 1989; ii:849-853.

Kongsaengdao S, Samintarapanya K, Rusmmechan S, et al. An outbreak of botulism in Thailand: clinical manifestations and management of severe respiratory failure. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43(10): 1247-56.

McLauchlin J, Grant KA, Little CL. Food-borne botulism in the United Kingdom. J Pub Health 2006.

Roberts E, Wales JM, Brett MM, Bradding P. Cranial-nerve palsies and vomiting. Lancet 1998; 352:1674.

St Louis M, Peck SHS, Bowering D et al. Botulism from chopped garlic: Delayed recognition of a major outbreak. Ann Intern Med 1998;108:363-368.

Woodruff BA, Griffin PM, McCroskey LM, et al. Clinical and Laboratory Comparison of Botulism from Toxin Types A, B and E in the United States, 1975-1988. J Infectious Diseases 1992;166:1281-6.

Intestinal colonisation (Infant botulism)

Arnon SS. Infant Botulism. In: Textbook of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, eds R.D Feigen, J.D. Cherry. 3rd ed 1992. pp.1095-1102. Pub. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.

Arnon SS, Schechter R, Maslanka SE et al. Human botulism immune globulin for the treatment of infant botulism. N Eng J Med 2006; 354 (5): 462-71.

Benzer A, Luz G, Haugh C, et al. Central nervous system involvement in infantile botulism. Lancet 1990; i:228.

Brett MM, McLauchlin J, Harris A, O'Brien S, Black N, Roberts D, Bolton FJ. A case of infant botulism with a possible link to infant formula milk powder: evidence for the presence of more than one strain of Clostridium botulinum in clinical specimens and food. J Med Microbiol 2005; 54:769-776.

Johnson RO, Clay A, Arnon SS. Diagnosis and Management of Infant Botulism. American J Diseases Children 1979;133:586-593.

Smith GE, Hinde F, Westmoreland D, et al. Infantile Botulism. Archives Disease Childhood 1989; 64:871-872.

Turner HD, Brett EM, Gilbert RJ, et al. Infant Botulism in England. Lancet 1978; i:1227-8.

Wohl DL, Tucker JA. Infant Botulism: Considerations for Airway Management. Laryngoscope 1992; 102:1251-4.

Wound Botulism

Akbulut D, Dennis J, Grant KA, Hope V, Ohai C, McLauchlin J, Mithani V, Mpamugo O, Ncube F, de Souza-Thomas L.Wound botulism in injectors of drugs: upsurge in cases in England during 2004. Eurosurveillance 2005; 10:172-174.

Athwal BS, Gale AN, Brett MM, et al. Wound botulism in the UK. Lancet 2001;357:234.

Brett MM, Hallas G, Mpamugo O. Wound botulism in the UK and Ireland. j Med Microbiol 2004; 53: 555-561.

Mulleague L, Bonner SM, Samuel A, et al. Wound botulism in drug addicts in the United Kingdom. Anaesthesia. 2001; 56:120

Diagnosis

Akbulut D, Grant KA, McLauchlin J. Application and development of real-time PCR assays to detect fragments of the Clostridium botulinum Types A, B and E neurotoxin genes for investigation of human foodborne and infant botulism. Foodborne Pathogens & Disease 2004; 1:247-257.

Akbulut D, Grant KA, McLauchlin J. Improvement in laboratory diagnosis of wound botulism and tetanus amongst illegal injecting drug users by use of real-time PCR assays for neurotoxin gene fragments. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43:4342-4328.

Last reviewed: 23 June 2010